伯纳德·路易斯的1938

秦轩 撰稿 • 2008-01-28 03:37:55 • 栏目:文化副刊

  他要思考的是,在一个底色依然是前现代社会的中东,未来的犹太国会带来什么?

  1936年,年仅 20岁的伯纳德·路易斯(Bernard Lewis)在伦敦大学获得了东方学的学士学位,这时萨义德(Edward Said)还在襁褓之中,二人之间的论战还要过近半个世纪才上演。

  拿到学位,伯纳德随即去法国巴黎大学跟另外一名东方学学者作东方学研究。东方学,Orientalism,包括中东(近东)和远东。但在彼时,主要还指中东。这门学科,法国人做的最扎实,掌握的资料多,且深入。拿破仑征埃及,不仅仅让学者有破译古埃及文字的机会,还开通了巴黎—开罗的渠道,这在十字军东征后,是头一遭。英国人随后,一次大战借阿拉伯人拆土耳其的台,几场仗下来,成就了劳伦斯。除英法外,德国也算中心。奥斯曼土耳其与德国合作关系良好。19世纪,威廉皇帝派大批军官去土耳其培训火枪手,自己也去巴勒斯坦旅游,顺路去大马士革时还重修了率阿拉伯人抗击十字军的萨拉丁苏丹的墓。不过,伯纳德·路易斯是犹太人,想去排犹的德国做研究,显然不现实。

  彼时,东方学并非显学。从欧洲的视角和框架描述,中东不是国际关系的关键所在,某种程度上还比不上印度和美洲。

  奥斯曼帝国在一次大战中崩溃,凯末儿上台,主张土耳其背弃伊斯兰世界领袖地位,致力于建立符合欧洲标准的现代民族国家。北非、阿拉伯世界向东到伊朗已经在英法两大帝国手心里攥了多年。两国不仅仅分别控制着欧洲动脉——苏伊士运河的绝大部分股份,且以各种方式规划了中东势力范围,建立新型的或共和或君主立宪的新国家。中东发现一些石油,可以作为战略物资,但时代与战争都不允许中东成为国际关系中重要的一环。

  伯纳德在伦敦时也曾犹疑,改行学过一段时间的法律,想去当律师。但最终他还是选择做中东史的研究工作。2年后, 22岁的伯纳德回到伦敦大学的东方学院成为一名助教。我们有理由相信,他当时要关注的首要课题是巴勒斯坦问题。

  1937年,到耶路撒冷调查的英国特派员,带回一份报告,报告称:“在一个狭小的国度内,两个民族纷争迭起,难以遏制。大约10万阿拉伯人与4万以色列人明争暗斗,互不相容。阿拉伯人自认为亚洲人,犹太人则以欧洲人自居,二者宗教语言各异,文化风俗,思维方式,为人处事,也因而有别。这是和平的最大障碍……战乱使全体阿拉伯人渴望回归自由与统一的阿拉伯黄金岁月。犹太人也有自己的历史宿愿……在阿拉伯人眼中,犹太人的入侵无异于过去阿拉伯人占领埃及与西班牙。而在犹太人眼中,阿拉伯人同入侵远古以色列国的迦南人毫无分别。家园……寸土不可让。“这场冲突有其兴起的必然性。而当时政策纯属激化矛盾。现在冲突已经到了不可收拾的地步……过去阿拉伯农民仇恨犹太人的现象并不普遍。但现在仇恨无所不在……状况不会缓和……而且很可能比现在更糟。所以冲突会继续,双方的裂痕将加宽。”据当时的记录,1938年一个犹太狂热分子被绞死,随即恐怖分子向一辆阿拉伯公共汽车开火,犹太人袭击政府大楼并在阿拉伯商场引爆炸弹。在海法的一次袭击中,74名阿拉伯人被炸死,129人受伤。到次年 2月,英国殖民政府出台白皮书。据白皮书的记录,1938年共发生“暴力事件”5708起。其中包括针对军队与政府的袭击事件 1000起,2500人被逮捕,几乎都是阿拉伯人。根据这个报告,1938年当年平均每天至少发生两起值得记录的针对英国殖民者的暴力事件。

  这即22岁的伯纳德·路易斯所面临最大挑战。

  德国排犹已到疯狂地步,使得犹太复国貌似取得了相当合法性及迫切性。然则,犹太复国对于其他同样有复国思想的民族来说,并不公平。苏俄境内亚美尼亚人、亚细亚半岛至两河流域的库尔德人,均为各自的民族国家理想奔走。尤其亚美尼亚,经 30年前种族灭绝惨剧,立国之志并不比犹太人少多少。这些问题,伯纳德不可能视而不见。而摆脱思考这一问题的唯一出路似乎是,承认历史并不公正,以极现实之目光探讨民族出路。

  事实上,欧洲战事、巴勒斯坦纷乱均可让他在所学中东历史以及东西交通史中找到参照。跨文明的比较框架又可将种种现实赋予更为普遍的意义。毕竟,在前现代世界,战争、屠杀时有发生,但并没有民族主义的狭隘。(在《中东》〈The Middle East〉一书和文集《从巴别塔到信使:解读中东》〈From Babel to Dragomans: Interpreting the Middle East〉伯纳德·中,路易斯曾批判西方现代民族主义给中东带来了灾害。) 1938年,中东已被欧洲殖民多年,但在思想观念乃至生活习惯中,依然保留着众多前现代社会的痕迹。除了巴勒斯坦,中东其他地区的犹太人依旧像 100年前生活着。巴格达的市场作息时间,还是按犹太教作息执行着。伯纳德·路易斯要思考的是,在一个底色依然是前现代社会的中东,未来的犹太国会带来什么?二战开始,伯纳德·路易斯弃学术从军,为情报部门工作。他的主要任务是继续探讨在巴勒斯坦建立犹太国的可能性。

  日后随着战事推进,该如何处理犹太难民问题也必将在伯纳德·路易斯思索的范围之内。他有过哪些思考,有没有意识到此事爆发,将产生半个多世纪的连锁反应,成为人类历史上最为难解的命题? 1948年,大英帝国作出放弃解决巴勒斯坦问题的决定。这一年,伯纳德·路易斯已经年逾 30。再用不了几年,伯纳德将转入土耳其的研究。而此时他已将最青春的阶段投入残酷、复杂的阿以冲突中。显然,这段经历对于其学术风格的形成,偏右保守的价值观,有着重要影响。

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